Subfields of Psychology

 Rev. Kalalpitiye Sumanasiri

Sub-fields of Psychology

     

If we are going to give a complete introduction to psychology, it will not be easier. There is a reason for it to be difficult. That is the content of psychology is bigger than any subject in the world. So today psychologists have had to define psychology in many various ways because in the today world, people are dealing with psychology in many ways. But in every definition on psychology has a general factor. It is none other than this every definition is directly combined with “the mental process and behavior” of any beings which are human and nonhuman (animal or paranormal).

These various types of definitions on psychology are not accidental because they have originated with needs of people which act in different types of roles. In fact, where is people deal with, there is psychology. That’s why there is a great diversity in psychology. So we can identify a lot of subfields within psychology. A subfield of psychology means an area which having used psychological knowledge people deal with. 

Types of Psychology     

In Greek era, psychology was a study of soul and later it became a study of mind. After psychology was taken out from philosophy, it became an independent science. Today psychology touches a large number of other subjects including Philosophy, Anthropology, Sociology, Biology, Engineering, Technology, Mathematics, Statistics, Legal science, Strategy, Aesthetics, Logic, Literature, Education, Religion and more and more.

So according to the way people deal with this subject today, Psychology can be roughly divided into two major sections. One is research which seeks to increase our knowledge base. Another is practice which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real world. The study and practice of psychology encompass a vast range of subfields and specialty areas as a result of development happened during cause of a long time. Because human behavior is so varied, the number of subfields in psychology is constantly growing and evolving. Most of these subfields have been firmly established as areas of interest.

The use of knowing about sub-fields of psychology

 There are several sub-fields of psychology to consider when studying psychology. So knowing this will help you to understand the importance of studying psychology. Most of all, it's important to know where your interests lie in the broad area of psychology. So you can make an informed decision about what you want to study in psychology and how you can employ your skills in psychology. As well as, it will ensure that you'll be on the right path toward a successful psychology career.  

The fields of psychology encompass both research, which we learn fundamental things about human and animal behavior, and practice, which that knowledge is applied to solve problems and support human development. In each of the sub-fields there are psychologists who work primarily as researchers, others who work primarily as practitioners and many of them do both (scientist-practitioners). This will help you to understand the variety of careers also in psychology.  The following are brief descriptions of some of the subfields in psychology.

Some of sub-fields in Psychology

The fields of psychology encompass both research, which we learn fundamental things about human and animal behavior, and practice, which that knowledge is applied to solve problems and support human development. In each of the sub-fields there are psychologists who work primarily as researchers, others who work primarily as practitioners and many of them do both (scientist-practitioners). This will help you to understand the variety of careers also in psychology.  The following are brief descriptions of some of the subfields in psychology.

01.  Abnormal Psychology

    

Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior of individuals including the factors, situations, and conditions that cause mental disorders and emotional problems and how they may be best treated. This knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treat patients with psychological disorders.

     

Abnormal psychologists can help people to live better lives. Careers in abnormal psychology encompass a wide range of interests and services. Most treating psychologists, including counselors, psychotherapists, clinical social workers, and clinical psychologists, are specialists in abnormal psychology.

02.  Biological Psychology

Biology is defined as “the study of life” (from the Greek bios meaning life and logos meaning study). A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways. Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior. Investigation of inheritance: what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of inheritance (genetics).

Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological side of behavior and mental states. Seeing all behavior as intertwined with the nervous system, biological psychologists feel it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. 

Bio-psychologists employ in various areas to include cognitive neuroscience, psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, behavioral genetics and comparative psychology.  Each area uses the combination of biology and psychology in different ways.

03.  Child Psychology

Child psychology is one of the branches of psychology focuses on the mind and behavior of children from prenatal development through adolescence. Child psychology deals not only with how children grow physically, but with their mental, emotional and social development as well. Today, psychologists recognize that child psychology is unique and complex.

The different contexts of child psychology are Social Context, Cultural Context and Socioeconomic Context. Some of main subjects of child psychology are Genetics, Environmental Influences, Prenatal Development, Social Growth, Personality Development, Language, Gender Roles, Cognitive Development, Sexual development.    

Child psychologists work in different ways. 

·         Abnormal child psychologist: Works with children suffering from psychological disorders including anxiety, mood and personality disorders. 

·         Adolescent psychologist: Works with adolescent clients between the ages of 12 and 18 who suffer from psychological illness or distress including eating disorders, depression or anxiety. 

·         Developmental psychologist: May study childhood development. 

·         School psychologist: Works within the educational system to help children with emotional, social and academic issues. 

·         Educational psychologist: Involves the study of how people learn, including topics such as student outcomes, 

      the instructional process, individual differences in learning, gifted learners and learning disabilities.

04.  Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the largest specialty area in psychology. This is the branch of psychology paid attention to the treatment of mental illness, abnormal behavior and psychiatric problems. Wilhelm Wundt defined clinical psychology as "the study of individuals, by observation or experimentation, with the intention of promoting change." Today, clinical psychology is one of the most popular subfields within psychology. 

Some of the major theoretical perspectives within clinical psychology include:

·         Psychodynamic Approach: This comes from psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who believed that the unconscious mind played an important role in our behavior. Psychologists who utilize this perspective may use techniques such as free association to investigate a client's underlying, unconscious motivations.

·         Cognitive Behavioral Perspective: by using this perspective, Clinical psychologists look at how a client's feelings, behaviors and thoughts interact. Cognitive-behavioral therapy often focuses on changing thoughts and behaviors that contribute to psychological distress.

·         Humanistic Perspective: This perspective looks at the client more holistically and is focused on such things as 

      self-actualization and helping people realize their full potential.

Clinical psychologists assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Some clinical psychologists treat specific problems exclusively, such as phobias or clinical depression. Others focus on specific populations: youngsters, ethnic minority groups, gays and lesbians, and the elderly, for instance. They also consult with physicians on physical problems that have underlying psychological causes.

05.  Cognitive Psychology

    

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. This includes: Memory, Problem-Solving, Perception, Language, information Processing. Cognitive psychology is unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states. Cognitive psychology is unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions; cognitive psychology uses scientific research methods to study mental processes.

Cognitive psychology is investigated in several ways:

·           Experimental cognitive psychology- this is the heart of all cognitive psychology and it uses carefully controlled experiments. Experimental approach is influential on all of psychology like clinical, social, developmental etc.

·         Cognitive neuropsychology- this is investigation of cognitive performance in brain damaged or brain diseased patients.  

·         Computational cognitive science- this involves computer programming to model or mimic some kind of cognitive function. Artificial Intelligence involves computer programming to construct intelligent outcomes, not necessarily resembling human processes.                

·         Cognitive neuroscience- this is the study of mental processes in the functioning brain to understand how the brain works (or functions cognitively). Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task. 

Cognitive psychologists also study reasoning, judgment, and decision making. Cognitive and perceptual psychologists frequently collaborate with behavioral neuroscientists to understand the biological bases of perception or cognition or with researchers in other areas of psychology to better understand the cognitive biases in the thinking of people with depression.

Cognitive psychologists work in a number of areas. Many cognitive psychologists conduct applied research or basic research on the human thought process. Cognitive psychologists often work at colleges and universities, government agencies, corporate businesses and in private consulting. Common careers titles include university instructor, human factors consultant, industrial-organizational manager and usability specialist.

06.  Comparative Psychology

Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. Today, biologists, psychologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists and many others contribute to the study of animal behavior.

Comparative psychology often utilizes the comparative method to study animal behavior. The comparative method involves comparing the similarities and differences among species to understanding of evolutionary relationships. The comparative method can also be used to compare modern species of animals to ancient species. Major Topics in Comparative Psychology are Evolution, Heredity, Adaptation and learning, Mating and parenting behaviors, Primates.   

 

The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology. Research on animal behavior has led to numerous discoveries about human behavior, such as Ivan Pavlov's research on classical conditioning or Harry Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys. Students of biological sciences and social sciences can benefit from studying comparative psychology.

07.  Community Psychology

  

Community psychology is a special area concerned with how individuals relate to society.  How do people become more active contributors in their communities? How do community issues impact the health and illness of individuals? These are both major topics of community psychology. 

Elements of Community psychology come from other subjects like sociology, political science, public health, cross-cultural psychology and social psychology. Psychologists working in this field look at the cultural, economic, social, political and environmental influences on people all over the world. The focus of community psychology is oftentimes a mix of both applied and theoretical sides.

Normally clinical psychologists focus on individuals who show signs o disorder. Most community psychologists attract about groups of people are not mentally ill (but may be at risk of becoming so) or on the population in general.

Community psychologists can be employed in various types of areas including education, government, nonprofit groups, community organizations and private consulting. Within the educational system, community psychologists often work at colleges and universities to teach courses and conduct original research. In government setting, they may work in health and human services for local, state and federal governments.

08.  Counseling Psychology

      

Counseling psychology is like clinical psychology this is interested in the treatment of mental disorders. The main difference between the two is that counseling psychology pays attention on normal problems of adjustment or challenge, such as choosing a career, experiencing academic stress, or coping with marital problems. The Society of Counseling Psychology describes this field as "a psychological specialty (that) facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and organizational concerns."

Many counseling psychologists provide psychotherapy services, but other career paths are also available. Research, teaching and vocational counseling are just a few of the possible alternatives to psychotherapy. Counseling psychologists may also conduct research and may seek to find answers to questions such as: Are there sex differences in the way people cope with difficulties? What is the psychological impact of exposure to a major disaster? These psychologists often work in academic settings, community mental health centers, hospitals, or private clinics.

09.  Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies the human growth and development throughout their life cycle including not only physical development, but also cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth. The study of human development is important not only to psychology, but also to biology, anthropology, sociology, education and history. Developmental psychology helps people to better understand how people change and grow. 

Some developmental psychologists focus on a specific population, such as developmentally delayed children. Others specialize in studying a particular age range, such as adolescence or old age. Some of developmental psychologists work in educational settings at colleges and universities, often conducting research on developmental topics while teaching courses. Others may work in government agencies to help assess, evaluate and treat individuals suffering from developmental disabilities. Other possible areas of employment psychologists are assisted living homes for the elderly, teen rehabilitation clinics, centers for the homeless, psychiatric clinics and hospitals, and public school systems and as day care center directors.

10.  Educational Psychology

    

Educational psychologists study the processes of learning, remembering, and thinking and then apply that knowledge to educational factors. Its study focuses on how people learn, including topics such as educational technology, instructional design, special education, curriculum development, organizational learning, gifted learners, individual differences in learning, and learning disabilities also. As well as it includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes in learning throughout the lifetime. 

Educational psychologists are employed by academic and educational settings. Recently industry and the military are offering increased possibilities for people with doctoral degrees who can design and evaluate systems to teach complex technical skills. There are new opportunities in evaluation of social problems and policies as well. All of these areas may begin to provide jobs for those with master's degree.

11.  Environmental Psychology

The environmental psychology studies the relationship between human behavior and physical environments such as social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments. These environments move from homes and offices to urban areas and regions.  Environmental psychologists may work for government or private environmental agencies or other agencies and corporations.

12.  Evolutionary Psychology

  

Evolutionary psychology is the combination of two science. Those are evolutionary biology and cognitive psychology. Evolutionary psychology studies how evolutionary principles such as mutation, adaptation, and selective fitness influence human thought, feeling, and behavior. Because of their focus on genetically shaped behaviors that influence an organism's chances of survival, evolutionary psychologists study mating, aggression, helping behavior, and communication. Evolutionary psychologists are particularly interested in paradoxes and problems of evolution.

13.  Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology studies psychological phenomena including cognitive processes, comparative psychology, learning and conditioning, and psychophysics. Experimental psychology pays its attention on both human and nonhuman animals with respect to their abilities to detect what is happening in a particular environment and to acquire and maintain responses to what is happening. 

These processes may include learning, sensation, perception, human performance, motivation, memory, language, thinking, and communication as well as the physiological processes underlying behaviors such as eating, reading, and problem solving. Most experimental psychologists work in academic settings, teaching courses and supervising students' research. Experimental psychologists are also employed by research institutions, business, industry, and government, academic settings, zoos, and engineering firms.

14.  Forensic Psychology

 

Forensic psychology is the field which deals with both psychology and the law. Psychology and law is a new field with career opportunities at several levels of training. At this point, psychology and law is concerned both with looking at legal issues from a psychological perspective and with looking at psychological questions in a legal context. In fact, forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments, or working directly in the court system.

In many cases, clinical psychologists, school psychologists, neurologists or counselors also deal with forensic psychology. Forensic psychologists definitely play an important role in the criminal justice system, however, and this can be an exciting career for students interested in applying psychological principles to the legal system. Forensic psychologists may work in prisons, jails, rehabilitation centers, police departments, law firms, schools, government agencies, or in private practice.

15.  Gero-Psychology

Geropsychology is a branch of psychology which studies about older adults. Geropsychology finds about mental disorders, depression, anxiety and age-related illnesses of older adults. Geropsychology bring about psychotherapies and interventions to treat a variety of disorders, aging concerns, and challenges to encourage older adults to live better life in their senior years. It is also a field that provides guidance for common changes that take place in these later years.

Geropsychologists utilize sociology, biology, psychology, and other disciplines to study the factors associated with adult development and aging. Geropsychologists find employment in academic settings, research centers, industry, health care organizations, mental health clinics, and agencies serving the elderly. Others are engaged in private practice as consultants on the design and evaluation of programs for the elderly.

16.  Health Psychology

While health psychology is known as the biosocial model it says illness and health are a result of a combination of biological, psychological and social factors. Health psychology studies how patients handle illness, why some people don't follow medical advice, and the most effective ways to control pain or to change poor health habits. 

The field health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness. Health psychologists also focus on understanding how people react, cope and recover from illness. While  habits.

Psychologists may design programs to help people stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress, prevent cavities, or stay physically fit. They work in Medical centers, hospitals, health maintenance organizations, rehabilitation centers, public health agencies, and private practices. 

17.  Industrial/Organizational Psychology

    

Industrial/organizational psychology studies the relationship between people and organizational structures. These studies focus on people in the workforce including organizational change, workers' productivity and job satisfaction, consumer behavior, and the interaction between humans and machines.

    

Industrial/organizational psychologists apply psychological principles and research methods to the work places. Many of Industrial/organizational psychologists work as Consumer psychologists, engineering psychologists and Personnel psychologists also. They serve as human resources specialists, helping organizations with staffing, training, and employee development. And others work as management consultants in such areas as strategic planning, quality management, and coping with organizational change.  

         

18.  Legal Psychology (Psychology of Law)

Legal psychology is identified with researchers from different areas within psychology (although social and cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term legal psychology has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research.

19.  Media Psychology

Media psychology studies the relationships between mediated communication and the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the senders and recipients of the communication. To be a media psychologist, you have to study psychology and technology. If you want to “practice” media psychology, you should know how media technologies work, how they are developed, produced, and consumed. And you have to know psychology so you can actually apply it to issues of usability, effectiveness, and impact.

20.  Neuro-Psychology

Neuropsychology studies the relationship between physical systems and behavior. This may study chemical and physical changes that occur in the body when one experiences different emotions and it may study the effect of specific biochemical mechanisms in the brain to behavior, and the relation of brain structure to function. 

Neuropsychologists work in academic settings where they conduct research and train other neuropsychologists, clinical psychologists, and medical doctors. They might also work in hospitals and clinics.

21.  Para-Psychology     

Parapsychology is the scientific and scholarly study of certain unusual events associated with human experience. These experiences have been called "psychic" for want of a better term. Parapsychology does not correlate with astrology, UFOs, searching for Bigfoot, paganism, vampires, alchemy, or witchcraft.    

Parapsychologists normally study about psychic, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, extra-sensory perception, psychokinesis, direct mental interactions with living systems, near death experience, out-of-body experience, reincarnation, haunting and more things.

22.  Personality Psychology     

Personality psychology studies about the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person unique. Personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent during the life time. There are different theories explain about personality. A few of the major theories of personality are trait theories, psychoanalytic theories, behavioral theories, humanist theories. Personality psychologists often work in academic settings as instructors or researchers.

23.  Positive Psychology

Positive psychology focuses on human prospering. This new field of psychology is centered on helping people become happier.  Martin Seligman says that "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise that achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in individuals, families, and communities." 

Main topics in positive psychology are happiness, optimism and helplessness, mindfulness, flow, character strengths and virtues, hope, positive thinking, resilience. Positive psychology’s study has a range of real including education, therapy, self-help, stress management and workplace issues. Using strategies from positive psychology, teachers, coaches, therapists and employers can motivate others and help individuals understand and develop their personal strengths.

24.  Psychology of religion

Many areas of religion remain unexplored by psychology. While religion and spirituality play a role in many people’s lives, it is uncertain how they lead to outcomes that are at times positive, and at other times negative. Psychology of religion applies psychological studies to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. The science attempts to accurately describe the details, origins, and uses of religious beliefs and behaviors. 

25.  Psychology of women

Psychology of women is the study of psychological and social factors affecting women's development and behavior. Psychology of women focuses its study in a variety of academic and clinical settings. Most psychologists whose concern is the psychology of women have received their training in clinical, developmental, or social psychology, or in psycho-biology areas. Researchers who focus on health issues for women have been hired as faculty members in nursing, public health, social work, or psychiatry departments of universities. 

26.  Psycho-metrics and Quantitative Psychology  

   

Psycho-metrics and quantitative psychology studies about psychological measurement. This branch of psychology includes the measurement of knowledge, personality traits, attitudes and abilities. Students of psycho-metrics and quantitative psychology are mainly concerned with the design and application of questionnaires, tests and other instruments of psychological measurement.

    

These psychologists are well trained in mathematics, statistics, and computer programming. They create new intelligence, personality, and aptitude tests. They are also qualified to interpret experimental results and design new techniques for analyzing information. Psycho-metricians and quantitative psychologists are mainly employed by universities and colleges, testing companies, private research firms, and government agencies.

27.  Rehabilitation Psychology

Rehabilitation Psychology assists the individual with an injury or illness, which may be chronic, traumatic or congenital, including the family, in achieving optimal physical, psychological and interpersonal functioning. Rehabilitation psychologists work with stroke and accident victims, people with mental retardation, and those with developmental disabilities caused by such conditions as cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and autism.

    

Rehabilitation psychologists work in public health programs to prevent disabilities, including those caused by violence and substance abuse. And they testify in court as expert witnesses about the causes and effects of a disability and a person's rehabilitation needs.

28.  School Psychology      

School psychology applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and learning problems. This is used in creating environments that facilitate learning and mental health. Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into private practice and serve as consultants. 

29.  Social Psychology

Social psychology studies how individuals interact with others and how they are influenced by their social environments. This studies individuals, groups, observable behaviors, and private thoughts. Main topics of social psychology are the formation of attitudes and attitude change, individual and group decision making, attraction between people such as friendship and love, prejudice, personality and social development, group dynamics, and violence and aggression. Social psychologists can be found in academic settings, advertising agencies, corporations, hospitals, and survey firms.

30.  Sports Psychology    

Sports psychology studies how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and physical activity. Sports psychology applies psychological methods and knowledge to the study and modification of the behavior and mental processes of people involved in sports. Sports psychologists’ careers are counseling in a sports medicine clinic or with a professional sports team, health care settings working in health promotion and rehabilitation programs.

REV.KALALPITIYEI SUMANASIRI,

BA. PSYCHOLOGY (SP) (UG),

2^ND YEAR ,

UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA,

SRI LANKA.